Deep Roots: An Exploration of Asian History in the United States – Part II

The United States, like many other Western nations, has a history accented with great achievements that broke down barriers to the future. These same histories are also bloated with an array of human rights abuses that are lessons for the ages. Ranging from the egregious period of slavery and the Triangle Trade to the folly of modern relationships, one type of history that sticks out is that of Asian Americans.

Previously, we explored the grueling labors and gross mistreatment of the first Asians to come to America. Specifically, we discussed their work in gold mines and relationships with Americans during the 1849 California Gold Rush. Asian immigrant laborers were also put under abusive working conditions during the western development of the Transcontinental Railroad, all while getting none of the credit.

This time, we will explore the deep roots that Asian people have in this country as it relates to the significant events of severe mistreatment of these people. Today, we’ll take a look at one of the most controversial decisions made by a sitting United States president, Executive Order 9066, and how it led to not only American civil history, but legal and military history, too.

A day “which will live in infamy.” These were the well-known words of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to describe the impact Japan’s Pearl Harbor attack had on the American people. More particularly, the impact it had on the United States’ decision to enter World War II in the Pacific Theater.

During World War II, Congress had maintained an isolationist perspective as President Wilson had during World War I. President Roosevelt, however, felt much differently but was limited by Congress in his ability to act. Pearl Harbor was what drove the country’s opinion in favor of FDR’s internationalist ideology.

While the United States’ entry in the war was up for dispute, American’s opinion of Japanese Americans was not. All eyes turned to Japanese Americans after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and FDR’s pen turned to sign E.O. 9066 — the order to intern all Japanese in the United States to prevent espionage.

Enacted just two short months after the dramatic loss of more than 2,400 people at the Hawai’i naval base and headquarters of the U.S. Pacific fleet, Japanese Americans were put on busses and trains and shipped to one of the 10 prison camps built under E.O. 9066. These camps were dotted across California (2), Arizona (2), Utah (1), Idaho (1), Wyoming (1), Colorado (1), and Arkansas (2).

While not controversial in the public eye, the executive action created questions regarding its constitutionality. One Japanese American, Fred Korematsu, refused to relocate when ordered to by local authorities under E.O. 9066. At the time, he was welding ships for the U.S. Navy. He sued and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court. What has been dubbed a landmark decision, the Supreme Court ruled in a 6-3 majority that (1) President Roosevelt did have the right to intern all Japanese Americans as a “military necessity” and (2) that national security overrides an individual’s rights during a time of war.

So what went on inside these camps? Matt Mullen from History gave some good insight: “Each relocation center was its own town featuring schools, post offices, and work facilities, as well as farmland for growing food and keeping livestock, all surrounded by barbed wire and guard towers.” There were also many different manufacturing plants and factories dotted in and around the relocation centers that Japanese people were able to find employment in. 

Unfortunately, on top of poor conditions and unfair treatment, violence was also a reoccurring issue. Mullen also provided some horrific examples of the violence, including the marching of internees at night for distances of up to two miles, and the shooting of people who attempted to flee or got too close to the perimeter. One of the most shocking instances of violence was of a riot that broke out on Aug. 4, 1942 in one of the California camps. Because food was sparse and space was nonexistent, internees grew increasingly upset. Tensions got so bad a Japanese American Citizen was beaten by six masked men followed by police then tear-gassing the crowds.

It wasn’t until 1988, 44 years after they were released from the concentration camps, that the Japanese Americans who were interned were formally apologized to by the United States by way of the Civil Liberties Act. This bill paid out over $1.6 billion in reparations to victims of internment or their immediate descendants. 

Of the over 110,000 Japanese people sent to these internment camps, more than half — nearly 66,000 — were natural born American citizens. After the events at Pearl Harbor, massive investigations were launched into determining whether or not any Japanese Americans were involved in the attack. Only one person was ever arrested for espionage: Bernard Julius Otto Kuehn, a German collecting and selling information to the Japanese government. Not one interned Japanese person was found guilty of being disloyal to the United States.

Even though they were treated abhorrently during World War II in the wake of Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were championed by the 442nd infantry regiment of the United States Army. This unit, composed almost entirely of second generation Japanese Americans, fought on the American front during the war and came home as the most decorated regiment in all of American history. Despite the loathe they, their friends and their families faced, they have become a beacon of hope and inspiration to Asian Americans today. They were awarded eight Presidential Unit Citations and 21 Medals of Honor.

Next time as we explore the modern difficulties Asian Americans have had to face, specifically regarding admissions standards and lawsuits against Yale and Harvard. We’ll also take a look at Utah State’s performance when it comes to admissions standards and application rates.

Michael.popaii@gmail.com